Learning Insights

Memory organization

1. Knowledge can be declarative (facts) or set actions or processes (procedural)
2. Information is more likely to be memorised in the long-term if it has meaning (relates to what you already know)
3. Information is more likely recalled if it has meaning (relates to the current context)
4. Units of information can be linked by semantic axes or propositional networks (meaningful connections) so that multiple areas of knowledge can be activated when required.
5. Using the same knowledge, expert exhibit more inter-related connections than novices.
6. Experts also possess more facts, experiences and examples from which to make connections to newly received knowledge
7. Even within the same field, each expert organises the same body of information differently in their mind and this is activated differently given the same problem.
8. Thinking cannot be separated from factual knowledge and context

Memory storage

1. People don’t necessarily forget, they just can’t recall at the right moment
2. Faliure to recall can occur when we don’t recognise the relevance of that information in a particular situation
3. Recall is better for commonly used information
4. How we store and recall information is dependent on the meaning that is attributed to it at the time, the context in which it could apply, the way in which it was learnt and the frequency we are forced to recall it
5. A number of inter-related facts learnt at the same time is better stored and recalled than a set of disconnected, apparently irrelevant or random facts
6. It is difficult to remember a fact if it doesn’t fit into your own knowledge and understanding – or if it is presented to you in an unusual way
7. Experts can accommodate facts faster within their field than novices because they see meaning, connections, context and relevance more quickly
8. The situation and context in which the information is presented or learnt affects if you can recall it or apply it in different situations and contexts
9. The same facts may need to be organised in your mind in different ways for it to be recalled for different situations. Conversely, if organised only in one way it may be recalled well in one situation and poorly in another
10. Deliberate, periodic, unassisted retrieval and recall from long-term memory is the means to strengthening memory (retrieval practice) rather than short-term, intense repetition (cramming)
11. New information should activate and connect with student’s prior knowledge. Similarly providing irrelevant or disconnected information interferes with memorising relevant information
12. Information should be taught as close to the context in which it should be used
13. The same information should be taught in multiple contexts so it can be applied widely
14. Periodically challenging students’ current knowledge and recall with varying and more elaborate contexts is required to develop expertise

KONICA MINOLTA DIGITAL CAMERA

Problem solving

1. Experts tend to see deeper commonalities and principles between problems than novices who focus on the superficial details
2. Novices learn quicker if they are explicitly taught the connections between problems rather than just being presented the problems themselves
3. Experts tend to use a set of underlying principles to solve a multitude of problems whereas novices tend to memorise individual solutions for each problem
4. Solving problems rather than memorising problems gives the students the opportunity to identify underlying principles
5. Practising solving problems improve expertise
6. Experts in highly specialised field are more likely to use specific problem-solving strategies that are applicable and highly effective in their field but will have difficulty generalising them to other fields.
7. We also need to know when to use facts and actions for a particular situation and how we use the same facts and actions may be modified by the situation
8. To achieve expertise, students must be given the opportunity to solve a problem for which they are not told which concepts are relevant to its solution

Concept formation, categorisation, pattern recognition

1. Experts learn to make connections between information in a way that is useful or practical from their years of practise
2. Experts form patterns, categories or classifications that are linked to classical examples but also acknowledge exceptions
3. Providing multiple case examples to solve is a powerful way for students to see patterns

Decision making

1. Experts are more efficient at decision making by using ‘rules of thumb’
2. There are various cognitive biases that affect both experts and novices that cause them to “jump to the wrong conclusion”
3. There is limited evidence that teaching people to be aware of their thinking and biases reduces these errors
4. But recognising the features when ‘rules of thumb’ aren’t applicable can reduce decision error

Reference: Issues in cognitive psychology: implications for professional education.